Revolution

Revolution is a term that generally refers to a fundamental change in the character of a nation's government. Such a change may or may not be violent. Revolution may also occur in other areas, including cultural, eco­nomic, and social activities. People who work to replace an old system with a new one are called revolutionaries.

Kinds of revolution. A political revolution may change various ways of life in a country, or it may have no effect outside the government. For example, the Russian Revolution of 1917 not only deposed the czar but also began major social changes, such as the elimination of private property. On the other hand, the American Revolution (1775-1783) changed a political system without causing basic social changes.

Some revolutions last for many years. The Chinese Communists fought for 22 years before defeating the Nationalist Chinese government in 1949. This revolution involved widespread guerrilla warfare, a popular form of combat among modern revolutionaries. See China Guerrilla warfare.

Some political movements that appear to be revolutions do no more than change a country's rulers. Many Latin-American  political uprisings have replaced dictator without making fundamental changes in governmental system. Political scientists call such movements rebellions rather than revolutions. However, a rebellion sometimes leads to a political or social revolution. See Coup d’etat; Junta.

Many revolutions involve illegal uprisings, but some occur after a legal transfer of power within the existing. For example, Adolf Hitler took power as dictator of Germany soon after the country's president had appointed him chancellor.

Some of history's most widespread revolutions did not have political beginnings. The Industrial Revolution of the 1700’s and early 1800's changed the basic nature of Western society from rural to urban (see Industrial Revolution). The invention of the telephone, and other advances in technology and communications during the late 1800’s and the 1900's, have also caused revolutions in industry and everyday life.

Causes of revolution. Most revolutions occur because serious problems have caused widespread dissatisfaction with an existing system. Poverty and injustice under cruel, corrupt, or incapable rulers may contribute to revolution. But in most cases, social problems alone do not cause revolutions. They lead to despair rather than a willingness to fight for something better. Revolutions need strong leaders who can use unsatisfactory conditions to unite people under a programme that promises improvements.

Many revolutions occur after rulers begin to lose confidence in themselves and yield to various demands from their rivals. Such compromises by rulers, or rapidly improving social conditions, create a revolution of rising expectations as people begin to see hope for a better life. If changes do not keep pace with their expectations, the people lose faith in their rulers and start listening to revolutionary leaders. The French Revolution of 1789 and the Russian Revolution both began after the rulers agreed to the people's demands for representative assemblies. The Hungarian Revolution of 1956 occurred after the government released some of its strongest opponents from prison.

Not all revolutions have led to improved conditions. Some revolutionaries have worked for change only to gain political power for themselves. A number of conservative rulers have called themselves revolutionaries simply to convince the public that they support social and economic changes. See also French Revolution; Revolution of 1848; American Revolution; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (History); Terrorism.

Revolution of 1848 involved a series of uprisings in France, Germany, and the Austrian Empire, including parts of Italy. Causes of the revolution included demands for constitutional government; increasing nation­alism among Germans, Italians, Hungarians, and Czechs; and peasant opposition to the manorial system in parts of Germany and in the Austrian Empire (see Manorialism).

The revolution began in France in February 1848 as a protest against voting restrictions, political corruption, and poor economic conditions. Soon afterward, the French king, Louis Philippe, abdicated. Liberal politi­cians then set up a new government called the Second Republic.

The revolution quickly spread to the Austrian Empire and Germany. In the Austrian Empire, students and workers rioted in Vienna. Elsewhere in the empire, Hun­garian and Czech nationalists rebelled against Austrian authority. In addition, Italians tried to drive their Aus­trian rulers from northern Italy. In Germany, liberal up­risings swept through the German Confederation, which consisted of Prussia and 38 other independent states. Workers in German cities demanded social reform. Rep­resentatives of various parts of Germany assembled in Frankfurt to try to unify the separate states into a single nation.

The Revolution of 1848 quickly failed. In France, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, who had been elected president, declared himself emperor. Protests by French workers were brutally put down. In the Austrian Empire, troops crushed the nationalist uprisings and defeated the Ital­ian rebels. In Germany, monarchies became more firmly established in the major German states. In addition, the assembly at Frankfurt broke up without achieving Ger­man unity.
However, one major goal of the revolution was achieved—the ending of the manorial system in Ger­many and the Austrian Empire. Also as a result of the revolution, European rulers became more sensitive to the demands of nationalists and began experimenting with more liberal forms of government. See also Austria (Metternich and revolution); France (The revolutions of 1830 and 1848); Germany (The Revo­lution of 1848); Italy (Italy united).