Army is the branch of a nation’s armed forces that is trained to fight on hand. An army consists of ground troops, their weapons and equipment, and military bases. In some countries, the largest units of the army are themselves called armies. These units consist of infantry, armoured tanks, and artillery, plus support troops who handle TRANSPORT, MEDICAL CARE, AND OTHER RESPONSIBILITIES.
Almost every nation has an army. But
armies vary greatly in makeup and fighting strength, based largely on a
nation’s technology. Nearly all the industrialized countries have an army with
well-equipped infantry and the latest types of tanks and artillery. Such armies
also have hundreds of helicopters, personnel carriers, and short-range guided
missiles. These armies combine high mobility with tremendous firepower.
Developing nations, on the other hand, must rely heavily on specially trained
infantry and on guerilla warfare and similar hit-and-run tactics. Most of these
nations have limited industries with which to manufacture weapons and other
military equipment, and must import arms.
Countries also differ in the way they raise and maintain their army. Some nations use conscription, in which certain individuals are selected for duty. Others have universal military service, which requires all qualified men and women in a certain age range to serve. Still other nations have a completely volunteer army.
Countries also differ in the way they raise and maintain their army. Some nations use conscription, in which certain individuals are selected for duty. Others have universal military service, which requires all qualified men and women in a certain age range to serve. Still other nations have a completely volunteer army.
Most nations divide their army into a
regular army and an army reserve. The regular army consists of professional
soldiers. They continually receive training and are always on active duty and
ready for combat. The army reserve, called the national guard or militia in
some countries, consists of civilians who receive training periodically.
Reservists are on inactive duty except during their training and may be called
to active duty in an emergency.
For thousands of years, warfare consisted almost entirely of battles between armies. Many major land battles changed the course of history. In time, the power of navies – and later of aeroplanes and guided missiles – ended the dominance of armies. An army could no longer fight effectively if the enermy controlled the sea and the air. The development of nuclear weapons in the mid-1900’s changed the role of armies even further. Today, the main striking force of the most powerful nations consists of long-range bomber planes and guided missiles. These planes and missiles are capable of delivering nuclear weapons. However, armies continue to play vital roles in both war and peace.
For thousands of years, warfare consisted almost entirely of battles between armies. Many major land battles changed the course of history. In time, the power of navies – and later of aeroplanes and guided missiles – ended the dominance of armies. An army could no longer fight effectively if the enermy controlled the sea and the air. The development of nuclear weapons in the mid-1900’s changed the role of armies even further. Today, the main striking force of the most powerful nations consists of long-range bomber planes and guided missiles. These planes and missiles are capable of delivering nuclear weapons. However, armies continue to play vital roles in both war and peace.
The missions of armies
In war, a nation uses its army to conquer enemy territory and to defend itself from attack. In peacetime, an army can help prevent war. It also aids civilians in certain emergencies.
Conquest. A nation may seek to take over territory held by an enemy. The attacker’s tanks and other armoured vehicles invade the enermy’s territory, with planes and artillery supporting the advance. Other planes drop airborne troops behind enemy lines, and helicopters fly in commandos to seize certain key positions. Later, mechanized infantry sweeps in and occupies the conquered territory.
Defence. An army is trained or both offensive and defensive combat operations. But some units may be assigned to fight only in case of an enemy attack. In such cases, fortifications are defended chiefly by infantry and artillery. Mobile units are held in reserve to counterattack.
Prevention of war. A powerful nation may sometimes station troops in politically troubled regions or in areas threatened by attack. A show of military strength may help prevent war. In 1965, for example, the United States sent troops to the Dominican Republican to maintain order after rebels tried to take over that country.
The development of tactical nuclear weapons in the 1960’s gave armies another important peacekeeping function. The word tactical refers to certain nuclear weapons that are used only in battle, rather than in areas far behind enemy lines. An invaded nation might counterattack with tactical nuclear weapons. Its counterattack could lead to expanded use of these weapons and even to an all-out nuclear war. The fear of such a catastrophe might deter a nation from invading an enemy.
Civilian aid may be provided by an army in various emergencies. For examples, medical personnel and other army specialists may be sent to care for VICTIMS OF A DISASTER SUCH AS AN EARTHQUAKE OR A FLOOD. Armyunits may also help local police control riots and other disorders.
Repression. An army may be used to put down a civilian uprising. This happened in 1956 when Soviet troops crushed the Hungarian revolt. In 1989, the Chinese people’s Liberation Army helped the government quell the student democracy movement.
The world’s major armies
As army’s ranking among the armies of the worlds is based on its overall fighting strength. In general, fighting strength depends on the number of troops on active duty. But an army’s size does not necessarily reflect its actual strength. For example, a small army with tactical nuclear weapons may have greater striking power than a large army with outdated weapons.
The Chinese Army is the world’s largest army. It has about 600,000 people in its reserve and about 1 million in its armed militia.
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Army is made up of troops from the former Soviet Union. Before its breakup, the Soviet Union had the world’s second largest army. About 1 ½ million troops were on active duty. Most of them were based in the western part of the Soviet Union, in Eastern Europe and along the Soviet border with China. The Soviet Army had both volunteers and conscripts. Reserves totaled about 3 million.
In 1991, the Soviet Union broke up into a number of independent states, most of which formed a loose association known as the Commonwealth of Independent States. The CIS took command of the Soviet army. In 1992, the states began establishing their own armies, absorbing troops from what had been the Soviet army.
The United States Army has about 730,000 troops on active duty and about 1 million in the reserve and the National Guard. All are members.
The German Army has about 330,000 people on active duty and about 860,000 in the reserve. Both volunteers and conscripts serve in the German Army.
The French Army has about 280,000 members on active duty. France has about 330,000 members in its army reserve. The French Army has both volunteers and conscripts.
The Army of the United Kingdom has about 145,000 troops on active duty, 188,600 people in the reserves, and about 71,300 members of the territorial army. All are volunteers.
Other major armies include those of Egypt, India, Iraq, North Korea, Pakistan, South Korea, Turkey and Vietnam. Each of these armies has more than 300,000 troops on active duty. The armies purchase weapons and equipment from the world’s major powers, but none has tactical nuclear weapons.
India has a well-trained and equipped army with 1,200,000 members. Pakistan has an army of about 450,000 people and maintains a large reserve force. The South African army has 75,000 members, of whom 55,000 are conscripted. The Australian arm is small about 30,000 people, with 25,800 reserves. All the people in the army are volunteers. The 6,000 members of the New Zealand army are also volunteers.
History
Ancient armies developed of civilizations grew in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Asia, and in the Nile Valley of Africa. As early as 3200 BC, the Babylonians had built a regular army of spearmen and bowmen. About 2500 BC, the Sumerians, who lived in lands south of Babylonia used the first war chariots. Small wild asses and later, horses drew these chariots. By the 700’s BC, the Assyrians had organized armies equipped with spears and battering-rams.
In the 600’s BC, the ancient Greeks introduced the phalanx, probably the first important tactical formation in history. In this formation, heavily armoured spearmen stood four to fifty rows deep in a solid rectangle. Although it could be used in attack, the phalanx was essentially a defensive formation.
The mightiest conqueror of the period was cyrus the Great of Persia. In the 300’s BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia, the next world conqueror, organized the first known military supply system.
The Romans developed the next great tactical formation. In the early 300’s BC, they devised the legion (see Legion). This rectangular formation had greater flexibility than the phalanx. It consisted of three lines of small phalanxes called maniples or, later, cohorts. The Romans conquered Carthage in 146 BC and built a greater empire. They were also great military engineers. Julius Caesar’s armies built road, briges and forts throughout much of Europe.
In China, another civilization grew up in isolation from the empires of Europe and western Asia. The Chinese invented gunpowder in the AD 900’s, several hundred years before it became known in Europe. But gunpowder did not become an important weapon of war for the Chinese, because they did not use it in artillery except possibly in rockets.
Armies in the Middles Ages. After the Roman Empire collapsed by AD 476, Europe had no large regular armies for several hundred years. All able-bodied free men in the tribes that overrun the empire were also warriors. The tradition of a militia, citizen (as opposed to professional) soldiers, developed at this time.
During the Middle Ages, the basis of society was a military relationship. Landowners organized their own personal armies from among their workers. These part-time soldiers fought for limited periods in home defence armies effectively. They began to hire mercenaries by promising booty or pay. These mercenary soldiers use crossbows and other weapons they had learned to handle in their homelands. They sometimes deserted their employer at the height of a battle if they could get higher pay from the enemy.
The best-known mercenaries of the late Middle Ages were the Swiss pikemen and the Genoese crossbowmen. In a phalanx formation, the pikemen could throw back cavalry charges while the crossbowmen fired darts into the enermy’s lines. In the 1300’s, mercenaries in Gemany, Italy, and Switzerland were formed in the first military companies. The company later became the basic unit in many armies.
During the 1300’s, the Ottoman Turks became the first people since the Romans to build an army of full-time professional troops. These Ottoman troops, called Janissaries, served in peacetime as well as in war. In 1445, King Charles VII of France hired companies of mercenaries on a permanent basis, and set up the first regular army in Europe since Roman times.
Many modern military organizations trace their origin t o the German Landsknechte (infantry) and the Reiter (cavalry) of the late 1400’s. The Germans based their organization on the English mercenaries known as Free Companies, and on the Swiss mercenaries. The Germans also organized the first supply units for their combat troops. Early armies had lived off the land did not have separate supply organizations. In the 1500’s, the German cavalry formed a quartermaster office to find quarters and food.
Gunpower hastened the development of army organization and tactics. The use of gunpower in gun began in Europe during the 1300’s. English soldiers used first cannos in the Battles of Crecy in 1346. These cannons fired stones and were clumsy and difficult to move. As gunpowder gained wider use, armies developed cannons powerful enough to shatter thick castle walls.
The Rise of Modern Armies. By the late 1600’s, infantry armed with the new socket bayonet and the musket could defend themselves against cavalry charges. They did not have to rely on pikemen. Three rows of soldiers stood in ranks, shoulder to shoulder, in a formation called the line. Infantrymen fired volleys at close range from their smoothbore muskets.
The obligation of all men to serve in wartime had disappeared almost everywhere by the early 1600’s. But Sweden kept this custom throughout the Middle Ages and King Gustavus Adolphus used conscription to recruit troops for the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). He gave his army greater mobility by equipping it with lighter weapons and increased firepower. His force is sometimes called the first modern army. (see Gustavus, Adolphus, and Thirty Year’s War).
During the 1700’s, most governments continued to build their armies by voluntary recruitment, especially among the poor and unemployed. Armies became professional groups of well-trained foot soldiers supported by artillery and cavalry. Most countries followed certain rules in warfare. Campaigns took place only in good weather. The troops went into quarters in winter and did not fight again until spring. They tried to attain a favourable position before they attacked the enemy. Commanders who were caught in a poor position often withdrew instead of fighting to the finish.
In the mid-1700’s, Federick the Great of Prussia introduced greater mobility to warfare. When his enemies outnumbered him, he struck quickly and unexpectedly. Frederick had to fight wars on several fronts at the same time. He moved rapidly wars on several fronts at the same time. He moved rapidly and attacked a single army before it could unite with others and attacked a single army before it could unite with others and attack him.
The growth in the size of armies made necessary an organization to control troops from a distance. Only a military genius such as Napoleon could personally direct many military units in the field. From 1840 on, railways began to spread across Europe. The Prussians realized that they could move armies much more quickly by rail and this made more accurate long-range planning possible. Gerhard von Scharnhorst of the Prusian Army developed the modern general staff that planned future military operations.
During the 1800’s, the Industrial Revolution led to the mass production of weapons and ammunition. It later brought the invention of the aeroplane and motorized vehicles. Commanders could direct armies in separated battlefronts by radio and other means of communication.
Armies in the two world wars. When World War I, began in 1914, the machine gun became the dominant weapon on the battlefield. The use of machine guns made free movement impossible on the western front. Both sides adopted trench warfare. Infantry dug in to hold their positions when they could not advance against the enemy. Railways carried millions of soldiers to the fighting fronts. Motor trucks hauled suppliers from railheads to the front lines. See World War I.
Field commanders tried to end trench warfare and regain tactical mobility. They shelled and bombed the enermy lines and followed with mass bayonet attacks. But for three years, most of these assaults failed. The trenches of the western front remained almost attack-proof. Army commanders found a solution, but they used it improperly and too late. The British built an armoured tracked vehicle with a petrol engine and create the first military tank (see tank). Tanks eventually replaced horse calvary. During the war, aeroplanes were used for the first time to support ground fighting. See Air force (History (World War I)).
In World War II (1939-1945), tanks and aeroplanes were able to restore mobility to warfare. The Germans developed the blitzkring (lighting war). Tanks and bombers first blasted great holes in enemy defences. Then infantry pured through the gaps and carried the war deep into enemy territory. See World War II (The invasion of Poland).
The war also saw the first use of armies in large-scale airborne operations. The Germans launched the first paratroop invasion in May 1941, when they seized the Island of Crete. The largest airborne operation took place in September 1944, when three division of Allied paratroops dropped behind the German lines in a partially successful attempt to capture bridges across the Rhine River. The largest amphibious attack in history occurred on June 6, 1944, when Allied armies landed in Normandy, in northern France.
During World War II, armies brought the military art of logistics (supply and services) to a high point of development. They organized huge commands that provided food, clothing, ammunition, weapons, supplies, and transportation for combat troops (see logistics). The Allied victory in World War II resulted partly from superiority in logistics and in civilian industrial production.
Armies in the nuclear age. World War II ended shortly after US warplanes dropped atomic bombs on two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The bombings not only led to Japan’s surrender, but also marked the beginning of the nuclear age.
Nuclear weapons brought sweeping changes to warfare. At first, however, some military experts doubted the value of these weapons on the battlefield. The earliest types of nuclear warheads could be delivered only by bomber planes flying at very high altitudes. This type of delivery could not be used on the battlefield and could be considered only for strategic targets. By the early 1960’s, armies had developed nuclear cannons and short-range guided and ballistic missiles. These weapons changed the thinking of many experts about the tactical use of nuclear weapons. Such cannons and missiles could launch nuclear warheads at a large body of troops, a supply dump, or any other target within the weapons’ range.
The world’s major armies underwent changes to make them less vulnerable to attacks by nuclear weapons. For example, large combat formations were reorganized into small highly mobile forces. In a nuclear war, these forces could be scattered in concealed positions near the enemy. They would unite briefly to seize an objective and then split up again. Army logistics also were changed. In a nuclear war, supplies would be stored far from combat areas and delivered to the front by cargo planes and large helicopters.
Since World War II, the fear of starting a nuclear war seems to have helped prevent major armies from using nuclear weapon. As a result, only conventional wars have been fought during the nuclear age. The first major conflict was the Korean War, which began in 1950. large armies did most of the fighting in this war. (See also Korean War).
During the 1960’s and 1970’s, the number, variety and power of nuclear weapons increased dramatically. But armies still used conventional tactics and weapons in war. For example, the United States Army relied heavily on conventional warfare tactics during its involvement in the Vietnam War, from 1965 to 1973. These tactics were the most effective way to fight guerillas in the jungles of Vietnam. (See Vietnam War).
Arab and Israeli forces fought conventional wars in 1956, 1967, and 1973. The armies of Iran and Iraq also fought a long conventional war, including some use of poisonous gas from 1980 to 1988. the tactics used by both sides resembled those of World War II, in which aircraft and tanks spearheaded attacks and were followed into battle by infantry. In 1991, during the Persian Gulf War, the armies of a coalition led by the United States launched an offencive against Iraq’s occupation of Kuwait. (See Persian Gulf War)
Battles: Battle of Agincourt, Battle of Austerlitz, Battle of Balaklave, Battle of Bannockburn, Bataan Peninsular, Battle of Blenheim, Battle of the Bunker, Corregidor, Battle of Crecy, Dunkerque, El-Alamein, Battle of Gettysburg, Battle of Hastings, Iwo Jima, Marathon, Okinawa, Battle of Poitiers, Saipan, Battle of Stalingrad, Thermopylae. Battle of Verdun, Battle of Vimy Ridge, and Battle of Waterloo.
History: Archery, Battering ram, Blunderbuss, Bloomerang, Catapult, Commando, Flintlock, Foreign Legion, Greek fire, Gunpowder, Harquebus, Hussars, Janissaries, Legion, Mercenary, Musket, Powder horn, Reichswehr, Shot tower, Sling, Spear, Swiss Guard, Tomahawk and Zouaves.
Organization: Airborne troops, Armour, Artillery, Cavalry, Chaplain, Infantry, and Intelligence
Weapons: Ammunition, Bayonet, Bozooka, Bullet, Cannon, Carbine, Cartridge, Explosive, Firearm, Flame thrower, Garand rifle, Grenade, Guided missile, Gun, Handgun, Machine gun, Mortar, Nuclear weapon, Rifle, Rocket, Sniperscope and Tank.
Other related articles: Air force, Camouflage, Conscription, Court-martial, (Decorations, medal and orders), Guerrilla warfare, Helmet, Insignia, Logistics, Marine, Mine warfare, Navy, Prisoner of war, and war.
In war, a nation uses its army to conquer enemy territory and to defend itself from attack. In peacetime, an army can help prevent war. It also aids civilians in certain emergencies.
Conquest. A nation may seek to take over territory held by an enemy. The attacker’s tanks and other armoured vehicles invade the enermy’s territory, with planes and artillery supporting the advance. Other planes drop airborne troops behind enemy lines, and helicopters fly in commandos to seize certain key positions. Later, mechanized infantry sweeps in and occupies the conquered territory.
Defence. An army is trained or both offensive and defensive combat operations. But some units may be assigned to fight only in case of an enemy attack. In such cases, fortifications are defended chiefly by infantry and artillery. Mobile units are held in reserve to counterattack.
Prevention of war. A powerful nation may sometimes station troops in politically troubled regions or in areas threatened by attack. A show of military strength may help prevent war. In 1965, for example, the United States sent troops to the Dominican Republican to maintain order after rebels tried to take over that country.
The development of tactical nuclear weapons in the 1960’s gave armies another important peacekeeping function. The word tactical refers to certain nuclear weapons that are used only in battle, rather than in areas far behind enemy lines. An invaded nation might counterattack with tactical nuclear weapons. Its counterattack could lead to expanded use of these weapons and even to an all-out nuclear war. The fear of such a catastrophe might deter a nation from invading an enemy.
Civilian aid may be provided by an army in various emergencies. For examples, medical personnel and other army specialists may be sent to care for VICTIMS OF A DISASTER SUCH AS AN EARTHQUAKE OR A FLOOD. Armyunits may also help local police control riots and other disorders.
Repression. An army may be used to put down a civilian uprising. This happened in 1956 when Soviet troops crushed the Hungarian revolt. In 1989, the Chinese people’s Liberation Army helped the government quell the student democracy movement.
The world’s major armies
As army’s ranking among the armies of the worlds is based on its overall fighting strength. In general, fighting strength depends on the number of troops on active duty. But an army’s size does not necessarily reflect its actual strength. For example, a small army with tactical nuclear weapons may have greater striking power than a large army with outdated weapons.
The Chinese Army is the world’s largest army. It has about 600,000 people in its reserve and about 1 million in its armed militia.
The Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Army is made up of troops from the former Soviet Union. Before its breakup, the Soviet Union had the world’s second largest army. About 1 ½ million troops were on active duty. Most of them were based in the western part of the Soviet Union, in Eastern Europe and along the Soviet border with China. The Soviet Army had both volunteers and conscripts. Reserves totaled about 3 million.
In 1991, the Soviet Union broke up into a number of independent states, most of which formed a loose association known as the Commonwealth of Independent States. The CIS took command of the Soviet army. In 1992, the states began establishing their own armies, absorbing troops from what had been the Soviet army.
The United States Army has about 730,000 troops on active duty and about 1 million in the reserve and the National Guard. All are members.
The German Army has about 330,000 people on active duty and about 860,000 in the reserve. Both volunteers and conscripts serve in the German Army.
The French Army has about 280,000 members on active duty. France has about 330,000 members in its army reserve. The French Army has both volunteers and conscripts.
The Army of the United Kingdom has about 145,000 troops on active duty, 188,600 people in the reserves, and about 71,300 members of the territorial army. All are volunteers.
Other major armies include those of Egypt, India, Iraq, North Korea, Pakistan, South Korea, Turkey and Vietnam. Each of these armies has more than 300,000 troops on active duty. The armies purchase weapons and equipment from the world’s major powers, but none has tactical nuclear weapons.
India has a well-trained and equipped army with 1,200,000 members. Pakistan has an army of about 450,000 people and maintains a large reserve force. The South African army has 75,000 members, of whom 55,000 are conscripted. The Australian arm is small about 30,000 people, with 25,800 reserves. All the people in the army are volunteers. The 6,000 members of the New Zealand army are also volunteers.
History
Ancient armies developed of civilizations grew in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Asia, and in the Nile Valley of Africa. As early as 3200 BC, the Babylonians had built a regular army of spearmen and bowmen. About 2500 BC, the Sumerians, who lived in lands south of Babylonia used the first war chariots. Small wild asses and later, horses drew these chariots. By the 700’s BC, the Assyrians had organized armies equipped with spears and battering-rams.
In the 600’s BC, the ancient Greeks introduced the phalanx, probably the first important tactical formation in history. In this formation, heavily armoured spearmen stood four to fifty rows deep in a solid rectangle. Although it could be used in attack, the phalanx was essentially a defensive formation.
The mightiest conqueror of the period was cyrus the Great of Persia. In the 300’s BC, Alexander the Great of Macedonia, the next world conqueror, organized the first known military supply system.
The Romans developed the next great tactical formation. In the early 300’s BC, they devised the legion (see Legion). This rectangular formation had greater flexibility than the phalanx. It consisted of three lines of small phalanxes called maniples or, later, cohorts. The Romans conquered Carthage in 146 BC and built a greater empire. They were also great military engineers. Julius Caesar’s armies built road, briges and forts throughout much of Europe.
In China, another civilization grew up in isolation from the empires of Europe and western Asia. The Chinese invented gunpowder in the AD 900’s, several hundred years before it became known in Europe. But gunpowder did not become an important weapon of war for the Chinese, because they did not use it in artillery except possibly in rockets.
Armies in the Middles Ages. After the Roman Empire collapsed by AD 476, Europe had no large regular armies for several hundred years. All able-bodied free men in the tribes that overrun the empire were also warriors. The tradition of a militia, citizen (as opposed to professional) soldiers, developed at this time.
During the Middle Ages, the basis of society was a military relationship. Landowners organized their own personal armies from among their workers. These part-time soldiers fought for limited periods in home defence armies effectively. They began to hire mercenaries by promising booty or pay. These mercenary soldiers use crossbows and other weapons they had learned to handle in their homelands. They sometimes deserted their employer at the height of a battle if they could get higher pay from the enemy.
The best-known mercenaries of the late Middle Ages were the Swiss pikemen and the Genoese crossbowmen. In a phalanx formation, the pikemen could throw back cavalry charges while the crossbowmen fired darts into the enermy’s lines. In the 1300’s, mercenaries in Gemany, Italy, and Switzerland were formed in the first military companies. The company later became the basic unit in many armies.
During the 1300’s, the Ottoman Turks became the first people since the Romans to build an army of full-time professional troops. These Ottoman troops, called Janissaries, served in peacetime as well as in war. In 1445, King Charles VII of France hired companies of mercenaries on a permanent basis, and set up the first regular army in Europe since Roman times.
Many modern military organizations trace their origin t o the German Landsknechte (infantry) and the Reiter (cavalry) of the late 1400’s. The Germans based their organization on the English mercenaries known as Free Companies, and on the Swiss mercenaries. The Germans also organized the first supply units for their combat troops. Early armies had lived off the land did not have separate supply organizations. In the 1500’s, the German cavalry formed a quartermaster office to find quarters and food.
Gunpower hastened the development of army organization and tactics. The use of gunpower in gun began in Europe during the 1300’s. English soldiers used first cannos in the Battles of Crecy in 1346. These cannons fired stones and were clumsy and difficult to move. As gunpowder gained wider use, armies developed cannons powerful enough to shatter thick castle walls.
The Rise of Modern Armies. By the late 1600’s, infantry armed with the new socket bayonet and the musket could defend themselves against cavalry charges. They did not have to rely on pikemen. Three rows of soldiers stood in ranks, shoulder to shoulder, in a formation called the line. Infantrymen fired volleys at close range from their smoothbore muskets.
The obligation of all men to serve in wartime had disappeared almost everywhere by the early 1600’s. But Sweden kept this custom throughout the Middle Ages and King Gustavus Adolphus used conscription to recruit troops for the Thirty Years War (1618-1648). He gave his army greater mobility by equipping it with lighter weapons and increased firepower. His force is sometimes called the first modern army. (see Gustavus, Adolphus, and Thirty Year’s War).
During the 1700’s, most governments continued to build their armies by voluntary recruitment, especially among the poor and unemployed. Armies became professional groups of well-trained foot soldiers supported by artillery and cavalry. Most countries followed certain rules in warfare. Campaigns took place only in good weather. The troops went into quarters in winter and did not fight again until spring. They tried to attain a favourable position before they attacked the enemy. Commanders who were caught in a poor position often withdrew instead of fighting to the finish.
In the mid-1700’s, Federick the Great of Prussia introduced greater mobility to warfare. When his enemies outnumbered him, he struck quickly and unexpectedly. Frederick had to fight wars on several fronts at the same time. He moved rapidly wars on several fronts at the same time. He moved rapidly and attacked a single army before it could unite with others and attacked a single army before it could unite with others and attack him.
The growth in the size of armies made necessary an organization to control troops from a distance. Only a military genius such as Napoleon could personally direct many military units in the field. From 1840 on, railways began to spread across Europe. The Prussians realized that they could move armies much more quickly by rail and this made more accurate long-range planning possible. Gerhard von Scharnhorst of the Prusian Army developed the modern general staff that planned future military operations.
During the 1800’s, the Industrial Revolution led to the mass production of weapons and ammunition. It later brought the invention of the aeroplane and motorized vehicles. Commanders could direct armies in separated battlefronts by radio and other means of communication.
Armies in the two world wars. When World War I, began in 1914, the machine gun became the dominant weapon on the battlefield. The use of machine guns made free movement impossible on the western front. Both sides adopted trench warfare. Infantry dug in to hold their positions when they could not advance against the enemy. Railways carried millions of soldiers to the fighting fronts. Motor trucks hauled suppliers from railheads to the front lines. See World War I.
Field commanders tried to end trench warfare and regain tactical mobility. They shelled and bombed the enermy lines and followed with mass bayonet attacks. But for three years, most of these assaults failed. The trenches of the western front remained almost attack-proof. Army commanders found a solution, but they used it improperly and too late. The British built an armoured tracked vehicle with a petrol engine and create the first military tank (see tank). Tanks eventually replaced horse calvary. During the war, aeroplanes were used for the first time to support ground fighting. See Air force (History (World War I)).
In World War II (1939-1945), tanks and aeroplanes were able to restore mobility to warfare. The Germans developed the blitzkring (lighting war). Tanks and bombers first blasted great holes in enemy defences. Then infantry pured through the gaps and carried the war deep into enemy territory. See World War II (The invasion of Poland).
The war also saw the first use of armies in large-scale airborne operations. The Germans launched the first paratroop invasion in May 1941, when they seized the Island of Crete. The largest airborne operation took place in September 1944, when three division of Allied paratroops dropped behind the German lines in a partially successful attempt to capture bridges across the Rhine River. The largest amphibious attack in history occurred on June 6, 1944, when Allied armies landed in Normandy, in northern France.
During World War II, armies brought the military art of logistics (supply and services) to a high point of development. They organized huge commands that provided food, clothing, ammunition, weapons, supplies, and transportation for combat troops (see logistics). The Allied victory in World War II resulted partly from superiority in logistics and in civilian industrial production.
Armies in the nuclear age. World War II ended shortly after US warplanes dropped atomic bombs on two Japanese cities, Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The bombings not only led to Japan’s surrender, but also marked the beginning of the nuclear age.
Nuclear weapons brought sweeping changes to warfare. At first, however, some military experts doubted the value of these weapons on the battlefield. The earliest types of nuclear warheads could be delivered only by bomber planes flying at very high altitudes. This type of delivery could not be used on the battlefield and could be considered only for strategic targets. By the early 1960’s, armies had developed nuclear cannons and short-range guided and ballistic missiles. These weapons changed the thinking of many experts about the tactical use of nuclear weapons. Such cannons and missiles could launch nuclear warheads at a large body of troops, a supply dump, or any other target within the weapons’ range.
The world’s major armies underwent changes to make them less vulnerable to attacks by nuclear weapons. For example, large combat formations were reorganized into small highly mobile forces. In a nuclear war, these forces could be scattered in concealed positions near the enemy. They would unite briefly to seize an objective and then split up again. Army logistics also were changed. In a nuclear war, supplies would be stored far from combat areas and delivered to the front by cargo planes and large helicopters.
Since World War II, the fear of starting a nuclear war seems to have helped prevent major armies from using nuclear weapon. As a result, only conventional wars have been fought during the nuclear age. The first major conflict was the Korean War, which began in 1950. large armies did most of the fighting in this war. (See also Korean War).
During the 1960’s and 1970’s, the number, variety and power of nuclear weapons increased dramatically. But armies still used conventional tactics and weapons in war. For example, the United States Army relied heavily on conventional warfare tactics during its involvement in the Vietnam War, from 1965 to 1973. These tactics were the most effective way to fight guerillas in the jungles of Vietnam. (See Vietnam War).
Arab and Israeli forces fought conventional wars in 1956, 1967, and 1973. The armies of Iran and Iraq also fought a long conventional war, including some use of poisonous gas from 1980 to 1988. the tactics used by both sides resembled those of World War II, in which aircraft and tanks spearheaded attacks and were followed into battle by infantry. In 1991, during the Persian Gulf War, the armies of a coalition led by the United States launched an offencive against Iraq’s occupation of Kuwait. (See Persian Gulf War)
Battles: Battle of Agincourt, Battle of Austerlitz, Battle of Balaklave, Battle of Bannockburn, Bataan Peninsular, Battle of Blenheim, Battle of the Bunker, Corregidor, Battle of Crecy, Dunkerque, El-Alamein, Battle of Gettysburg, Battle of Hastings, Iwo Jima, Marathon, Okinawa, Battle of Poitiers, Saipan, Battle of Stalingrad, Thermopylae. Battle of Verdun, Battle of Vimy Ridge, and Battle of Waterloo.
History: Archery, Battering ram, Blunderbuss, Bloomerang, Catapult, Commando, Flintlock, Foreign Legion, Greek fire, Gunpowder, Harquebus, Hussars, Janissaries, Legion, Mercenary, Musket, Powder horn, Reichswehr, Shot tower, Sling, Spear, Swiss Guard, Tomahawk and Zouaves.
Organization: Airborne troops, Armour, Artillery, Cavalry, Chaplain, Infantry, and Intelligence
Weapons: Ammunition, Bayonet, Bozooka, Bullet, Cannon, Carbine, Cartridge, Explosive, Firearm, Flame thrower, Garand rifle, Grenade, Guided missile, Gun, Handgun, Machine gun, Mortar, Nuclear weapon, Rifle, Rocket, Sniperscope and Tank.
Other related articles: Air force, Camouflage, Conscription, Court-martial, (Decorations, medal and orders), Guerrilla warfare, Helmet, Insignia, Logistics, Marine, Mine warfare, Navy, Prisoner of war, and war.
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